Groups of words by origin and use. Stylistic function of passive vocabulary
Vocabulary. Lexical meaning of the word. Synonyms. Antonyms. Homonyms. Paronyms
Lexicology studies the vocabulary of the language.
Word– this is the basic unit of language, which is a sound or a complex of sounds that has meaning and serves to name objects, phenomena, actions, characteristics, quantities, states, etc.
The totality of all words of the Russian language forms it vocabulary .
Lexical meaning of the word – this is the correlation of a word with certain phenomena of reality.
Words that have the same lexical meaning are called unambiguous(the smell of flowers, a pleasant smell), and words that have two or more lexical meanings are called polysemantic(dress sleeve, river sleeve, fire hose).
Direct meaning of the word – this is its main lexical meaning.
Figurative meaning – this is its secondary meaning, which arose on the basis of the direct one (ribbon in the hair, conveyor belt, ribbon of the road).
It is necessary to distinguish from ambiguous words homonyms- words of the same part of speech, identical in sound and spelling, but different in lexical meaning (lock with a key, water flows with a key, treble clef).
There are different types of homonyms:
- lexical homonyms (mow the grass with a scythe - a girl's scythe);
- homoforms (washing my hands is my jacket);
- homophones (forests – fox);
- homographs (flour – flour).
Synonyms- these are words of the same part of speech, close or identical in meaning, but different in sound and spelling (cultural - civilized - developed).
Several words of synonyms form a synonymous row in which the words differ in shades of lexical meaning (look, look - neutral, look - bookish, look - colloquial).
Antonyms- these are words of the same part of speech, different in sound, having opposite lexical meanings (upper - lower, truth - lie). Antonyms are the basis of antithesis (opposition).
Paronyms- these are words with the same root, usually from the same part of speech, similar in sound, but different in meaning (deed - misdemeanor, rain - rainy, addressee - addressee, general - general).
Groups of words by origin and use
By origin, all words in the Russian language are divided into borrowed and native Russian.
Originally Russian- these are words that originated in the Russian language (ladya, life).
Loan words - these are words that came into the Russian language from other languages (shoe, kitchen, lecture).
Words that have fallen out of active use are called outdated(police officer, person).
Among the obsolete words are:
- historicisms– words denoting the names of objects and phenomena that have gone out of use (chain mail, educational program);
- archaisms- words that have fallen out of use because they have been replaced by new ones (forehead - forehead).
New words that appear in a language are called neologisms(cybernetics, algorithm). Neologisms can be the author’s (frivolous little head (V. Mayakovsky)).
According to the sphere of use, words in the Russian language are divided into commonly used and limited in use.
Commonly used - these are words that are used by all people, regardless of profession and place of residence (daughter, good).
Restricted areas of use include:
- dialectisms- words used by residents of a particular area (bulba - potatoes, beetroot - beets).
- professionalism - words used by people of one profession or another (lashings - fastening boats on ships to protect them from being dislodged);
- jargon- expressively colored words that denote well-known concepts in a narrow, socially limited circle of people (truncate - understand (youth jargon)).
Exercise No. 1
Indicate the lexical meaning of the words.
Look around, personification, dress up, centurion, standard, fortune, swagger, penates, extraordinary, minnesinger, quadrille.
Exercise No. 2
Write down single and ambiguous words in 2 columns.
Yogi, quotes, conservative, leader, monologue, superficial, direction, change, natural, concoct, melt, tram, elegant, paganism, zenith.
Exercise No. 3
Write down the words used figuratively.
Snake smile, hackneyed phrases, tricky question, burn with a hot iron, ride in elections, good child, speak arrogantly, cradle of freedom, blockade ring, ribbon of the road, climb a mountain, unjustified extravagance, exercise, painkillers.
Exercise No. 4
Select and write down synonyms for these words.
Beautiful, small, difficult, humane, fast, long, dirty, tasty, run, understand, be surprised.
Exercise No. 5
Select antonyms for these words and group antonymous pairs by parts of speech.
Beginning, happy, right, fade, lose, wide, strong, far, little, poor.
Exercise No. 6
Insert appropriate antonyms.
1) It wouldn’t... yes... it would help. 2) Prepare the sleigh... and the cart.... 3) ... feeds a person, but ... spoils him. 4) Learning is ..., and ignorance is .... 5) ...things are better... idleness. 6) ... the world is better ... quarrels. (Proverbs)
Exercise No. 7
Make up sentences with these phrases.
Aggressive trot, change to a trot; peace in the family, the whole world; cold key, door key; cross your eyes, mow the grass; spectacular outfit, police outfit; peacock feather, fountain pen nib.
Exercise No. 8
Determine the meaning of each of the paronym words and make sentences with them.
Ignorant - ignorant, call - response, diplomat - graduate, practitioner - trainee, typos - prints, doorman - Swiss, idle - festive, kind - solid, dress - put on, found - justify.
Exercise No. 9
Make up phrases with adjectives - paronyms:
Person, talent (poetic - poetic); neighbor, interest (hidden - secretive); advice, suit (practical - practical); motive, character (romantic – romantic).
Exercise No. 10
Insert one of the synonym words into each sentence.
- This sculpture is made from a (whole, solid) piece of marble.
- He was distinguished by a (special, special) gift of foresight.
- The name of the comedy hero D.I. Fonvizin symbolizes the image (of the ignorant, the ignorant).
- The article in the newspaper evoked a lively (response, outcry) from readers.
- He always had a majestic and (royal, regal) appearance.
Exercise No. 11
Match each adjective with a noun. In what examples can the same noun be used?
Careful - thrifty, businesslike - businesslike, classy - classy, offensive - touchy, skillful - artificial, spectacular - effective, amazing - surprised.
Exercise No. 12
In which sentence should information be used instead of the word informatization?
The introduction of information technology is necessary in all spheres of life.
Even in rural schools, computer information classes have been created.
Reading the textbook is supplemented by information obtained from the Internet.
The country's large cities should become strongholds for accelerated informatization.
Phraseology
Phraseology - a branch of the science of language that studies stable combinations of words.
Phraseologisms- these are stable combinations of words that are close in lexical meaning to one word (to kick back - to mess around).
From the point of view of origin, phraseological units are divided into original Russian (all over Ivanovskaya, with Gulkin’s nose, out of the frying pan and into the fire), Old Slavonic (not of this world, beating up babies, an eye for an eye) and borrowed from other languages (blue stocking - from English . language, somersault - from Italian language, honeymoon - from French).
From the point of view of stylistic coloring, phraseological units are divided into the following groups:
1) neutral, or inter-style: keep your word, draw a line, put an end to it, swan song;
2) stylistically colored, among which stand out:
a) conversational (brew the porridge like the back of your hand, with all your might, two boots in a pair, fill your pocket);
b) colloquial (to twist your brains, it's in the bag, you're a fool);
c) bookish (finest hour, crown of thorns, apple of discord).
Colloquial and colloquial phraseological units are classified as reduced; book phraseological units - to the category of high, solemn.
Exercise No. 13
Indicate the lexical meaning of phraseological units.
Augean stables -
Build on sand -
The Forbidden fruit -
Lower your wings -
The cat cried -
Throw down -
Not at ease -
Hold it in your fist -
Twist your tail -
Change the scenery -
Exercise No. 14
Select phraseological units that have meanings:
- Few.
- Mump.
- To become famous, to become famous.
- Don't think about your safety.
- To hesitate, to do something very slowly.
- Stand out clearly, brightly.
- At worst.
- To feel yourself confident.
- Objectively, unbiased.
- A lot of.
Words for reference: regardless of the faces, do not spare the belly, pull the ropes, the cat cried, pass like a red thread, at worst, the Kazan orphan, go down in history like a fish in water, no end.
| Type of error | Example | |
| 1. | The word is used in a meaning that is unusual for it | Humanism and kindness contraindicated cruelty and indifference. |
| 2. | Violation of lexical compatibility of words | Tears flowed silently from her eyes. |
| 3. | Anachronism (ahistorical use of a word) | In secular society they loved to organize receptions and other get-togethers. |
| 4. | Tautology (repetition of words with the same root) | This characterizes the characteristic features of our time. |
| 5. | Mixing paronyms | The student is also an accomplice in the educational process. |
| 6. | Speech redundancy (pleonasm) | His passion for folklore led him to the ensemble. |
| 7. | Speech failure | Bazarov is a bright representative. He's a nihilist. |
6. Vocabulary and phraseology. Synonyms. Phraseological phrases. Groups of words by origin and use
Vocabulary is the entire set of words of a language, its vocabulary. The section that studies vocabulary is called lexicology (gr. lexikos - vocabulary + logos - study). She is interested in the lexical meaning, the meaning of the word. Lexicology examines the historical changes occurring in the vocabulary of a language and studies words from the point of view of their origin and use.
A word is the basic unit of language, which is a sound or a complex of sounds that has meaning and serves to name objects, phenomena, actions, characteristics, quantities, states, etc.
The totality of all words forms its vocabulary.
The lexical meaning of a word is the correlation of the word with certain phenomena of reality.
Words that have one lexical meaning are called single-valued (the smell of flowers, a pleasant smell), and words that have two or more lexical meanings are called polysemous (dress sleeve, river sleeve, fire hose).
The direct meaning of a word is its basic lexical meaning.
The figurative meaning is its secondary meaning, which arose on the basis of the direct one (ribbon in the hair, conveyor belt, road ribbon).
Synonyms are words of the same word, close or identical in meaning, but different in sound and spelling (cultural - civilized - developed).
Several words of synonyms form a synonymous row in which the words differ in shades of lexical meaning (look, look - neutral, look - bookish, look - colloquial).
Phraseology is a branch of the science of language in which stable and indivisible phrases that are integral in their meaning are studied. These indivisible phrases are called phraseological units (phraseological units). A phraseological unit has a meaning equal to either one word or a sentence.
Groups of words
by origin and use
By origin, all words in Russia are divided into borrowed and native Russian.
Originally Russian are words that originated in the Russian language (ladya, life).
Borrowed words are words that came into the Russian language from other languages (shoe, kitchen, lecture).
Words that have fallen out of active use are called obsolete (Uryadnik, Chelo).
Among the obsolete words are:
- – words denoting the names of objects and phenomena that have gone out of use (chain mail, educational program); - words that have fallen out of use because they have been replaced by new ones (forehead - forehead).
New words that have arisen in the language are called (cybernetics, algorithm). Neologisms can be the author’s (frivolous little head (V. Mayakovsky)).
According to the sphere of use, words in the Russian language are divided into commonly used and limited in use.
Common words are words that are used by all people, regardless of profession and place of residence (daughter, good).
Restricted areas of use include:
- - words used by residents of a particular area (bulba - potatoes, beetroot - beets). professionalisms - words used by people of one profession or another (lashings - fastening boats on ships to prevent them from moving); Jargons are expressively colored words that denote well-known concepts in a narrow, socially limited circle of people (truncate - understand (youth jargon)).
Lecture: Groups of words by origin and use
Original Russian and borrowed vocabulary
Depending on how the words originated, they belong to native Russian and borrowed vocabulary.
Words that originate in Russian are called originally Russian.
Eg, silver, bag, lighter, faith, now.
Words that entered the Russian language from other languages are called borrowed.
Eg, philology, jazz, athlete, money , vacation, play.
Active and passive vocabulary
Active vocabulary- words that are regularly used.
It is replenished due to the fact that new phenomena, concepts and, accordingly, new words appear - neologisms: rover, content, projector, rewriting. These words, initially accessible to a narrow circle of people, gradually become commonly used.
Passive, outdated vocabulary constitute words that have fallen out of living use.
It is divided into archaisms and historicisms.
Archaisms went out of active use due to the fact that they were replaced by new ones: if - if, hand - palm, eye - eye.
Historicisms became outdated, as the objects and the names they denoted disappeared:armor, carriage, cocked hat, bast shoes.
Expressive-stylistic vocabulary
In the vocabulary of the Russian language we can distinguish:
stylistically neutral
and stylistically colored.
Words, stylistically neutral, do not express any evaluation and are used in any style of speech.
Most of these words are: horse, walk, white, sit, in the distance.
IN stylistically colored vocabulary is divided into book and colloquial words, slang and colloquial words.
Book wordscharacteristic of bookish and written speech:thirst, lips, write.
Spoken words used in oral speech. A considerable part of them shows how the speaker relates to the named object, phenomenon, action, property, sign and gives their emotional assessment: grandfather, daughter, fidget, little boy. They give ease to speech and at the same time do not express rudeness.
Slang words are outside the boundaries of the literary language. They are characteristic of people of a separate social group, for example, schoolchildren, youth, athletes, and criminals. Students have an “automatic” - This is the receipt of an examination mark or test based on academic performance, without passing the exam or test.
Colloquial words T are also outside the boundaries of the literary language. They are stylistically reduced and give a socio-cultural characteristic to the speaker. Eg, theirs, for now, blurt out, big-headed, in bulk. Colloquial words also include vulgar, rude, swear words: go crazy, be stunned, be stunned, slam.
Groups of words by use and originWords that are not known to all speakers of Russian are called non-commonly used. These include dialectal and slang vocabulary, as well as professional and terminological vocabulary. Uncommon words used in a certain area are called dialectal, for example: kuren - house. Uncommon words used by certain groups of people to name objects that have their own names in the literary language, are called jargon, for example: limite - TV. Professional and terminological vocabulary is vocabulary used in a certain field of human activity. It makes it easy to distinguish a medical worker from a miner, a steelworker from a hunter, etc. Among professional words, terms denoting scientific concepts and highly specialized words stand out, for example: scalpel, bronchoscopy, part of speech, phoneme, grammatical basis. Depending on the origin, all words The Russian language can be divided into two large categories: native vocabulary and vocabulary borrowed from other languages. Native Russian words are the basic words that were included in the original vocabulary of the Russian language or were subsequently formed from the lexical material of the language. Words from the most ancient layer of words, for example: mother, brother, sister, water, etc., are found in other Indo-European languages (they just sound slightly different). Among the borrowed vocabulary, a large group of Old Church Slavonic words stands out: gates, valor, gold, words , borrowed from other Slavic languages: borscht, feta cheese (Ukrainian), skarb, cord (Polish), etc., as well as borrowings from non-Slavic languages: cotton wool, closet (German), station, football (English) , luggage, chef (French), etc. Borrowed words, when included in the vocabulary of the Russian language, usually lose the specific phonetic and morphological features of the source language and acquire sound and grammatical features characteristic of the Russian language. Passive vocabulary includes obsolete and new words. Obsolete vocabulary is represented by historicisms and archaisms. Historicisms are obsolete words that are the names of currently non-existent realities, objects of reality. (kokoshnik, altyn (currency unit). Archai? zmy (from ancient Greek archaios - original, ancient, ancient, obsolete, old, former) - obsolete words that have fallen out of active use and have synonyms that are used in modern Russian (eye - eye, brow - forehead, mouth - mouth,) Neologists? snakes (Greek. neos – new + logos – concept, word) – words in which the property of novelty extends equally to the sound complex and to the lexical meaning, as well as words in the semantic (the branch of linguistics that studies the semantic meaning of language units) structure of which new meanings appear .( Absurd(lat. absurdus, “discordant, absurd”) Aura (lat. aura - “breath”, “breeze”) - astral shell.) A word remains a neologism as long as it retains the property of novelty.
Homonymy. Types of homonyms: homophones, homoforms, homographs.
Homonyms- these are words that are identical in spelling or pronunciation, but differ in different lexical meanings, for example: onion(plant) - onion(weapon), lock(building) - lock(constipation agent) already(comparative degree from narrow) - already(adverb of time), etc.
Among homonyms there are those that have a coincidence in all forms of word change, for example: key(master key to the lock) - key(spring). They coincide when changing in cases and numbers, they have the same gender. Such homonyms are called complete, or lexical.
Another group consists incomplete, or partial homonyms: they have a coincidence: either in the formation of only some forms ( know- infinitive, know- elite, - coincide only in the initial form, and they change as a verb and a noun) - this homoforms(morphological homonyms); or when pronouncing ( raft - fruit, onion - meadow) - homophones(phonetic homonyms); or when writing (it’s worth - it’s worth, already - already) - it’s homographs(graphic homonyms).
The sources of homonymy are different, sometimes they arise as a result of the breakdown of the polysemy of a word: month (moon) - month (unit of time); sheet (tree) - sheet (notebooks); historical changes in the sound composition of a word also lead to the appearance of homonyms, for example: once (once upon a time) and once (lack of time); Homonyms arise as a result of the coincidence of borrowed words in the Russian language, for example: crane (valve) - a borrowed word from the Dutch language - coincided with the word crane (lifting device), borrowed from the German language.
In speech, homonymous words differ in context due to the meaning of the sentence. However, very often the difference between homonyms and a polysemantic word causes difficulties. In this case, you can use the following recommendations. The most practical method is considered to be the method of selecting synonyms for these words: homonym words have different synonyms, polysemantic words have common synonyms, for example:
jar (glass vessel) - jar (shoal in hand) - jar (bench for sitting) are homonyms; braid (hairstyle) - braid (shoal in hand) - braid (tool) - homonyms;
whole (all, complete) - whole (in limited quantities, all) whole (full) is a polysemantic word with the general meaning “whole, in full”; skinny (bad) - skinny (unsuitable for work) is a polysemantic word with the general meaning of “bad, unfit.”
If the alphabet were compiled according to the principle: “the number of letters corresponds to the number of phonemes of the language,” then the question of spelling would disappear by half. But since there are no ideal alphabets and they have evolved historically, reflecting different trends, the use of the alphabet in writing requires spelling rules. In addition to the rules for using letters to convey language, there are other rules of writing, such as, for example, the combined and separate spelling of words, the rules of hyphenation. Thus, orthography is a set of norms or rules of practical writing, consisting of: 1) rules for using letters of the alphabet when writing words, their forms and combinations, 2) rules for writing words and phrases, regardless of the included in their writing of letters. The norms for such writing are governed by various principles. For spelling, which is associated with the use of letters of the alphabet, six principles can be established, which are combined in pairs. The first principle is phonemic, the second is phonetic. The phonemic principle of writing is that each phoneme is expressed by the same letter, regardless of the position in which it falls: e.g. oak And oak are written the same, although pronounced differently: in the form oak -[b], i.e., a voiced consonant, and in the form oak at the end of the word this consonant is deafened. On the contrary, the phonetic principle of writing is that letters represent actually pronounced sounds; Thus, phonemic and phonetic spellings coincide in strong positions, but do not coincide in weak positions. So, som And myself are written the same both phonemically and phonetically, but in the case I caught the catfish myself - in Russian the spelling is phonemic, since strong positions suggest the distinction between [o] and [a], and phonetically the same statement would receive the following spelling: caught it myself - and where is the “fish” and where is the “fisherwoman” - you can’t tell. In Russian writing, exceptions to the phonemic principle can occur: 1) either in the composition of the alphabet: this is that there are twice as many vowel letters as there should be, and 12 fewer consonant letters than needed; in addition, there is no letter for the consonant [zh;]; 2) either because there are special spelling rules; for example, in spellings of prefixes with [z]: unemployed, But non-stop, eyebrowless, But careless and finally tasteless, where the letter is used h, Although h sounds in this case like [s]. However, when these consonants sound like "sibilants", for example in words silent, merciless, inhuman, And With remain according to the rule: “Before letters b, c, d, e, g, h, l, m, n, r is written h, and before the letters l, f, k, t, w, s, h, c, x is written With" In addition to this “rule” (which is rather an “exception” in Russian spelling), cases of phonetic spellings include writing the letter s after ts (gypsy, chicken, cucumbers, foxes, Lisitsyn), whereas it would be necessary to write in these cases after ts basic letter And, Wed surnames Lisitsian, Tsitsin, where the spelling is more phonemic. The basic rules of Russian spelling are based on the phonemic principle: “Write unstressed vowels in the same way as under stress, for example: water, water carrier, because water; forester, because forest, And fox breeder, because foxes".“Write voiced and voiceless consonants always in any position, such as before vowels, sonorant consonants and before [v], [v"], for example: fetus, because fruit, And raft, because raft; give away because tear off But file, because undermine; cur, because mongrels, But Masha, because Masek; climb, because I'm climbing, But carry, because I carry; swim with"erem" ( b), because bathe; that's why smoke, smoke And smokes, smokes are written differently." The third and fourth principles of orthography - etymological and traditional-historical - are based on reflecting in writing not the current state, but the past, and the etymological principle actually corresponds to the language in its past; these are the spellings of words with a letter e: bees, women, went, millet, lying, since in these cases there was once a phoneme [e] in the Russian language, but for the modern Russian language here [o], i.e. “ O after a soft consonant or after a hissing one”: cf. seam, zhokh, sword, cloak, rattle, tap, rustle etc., where the phonemic principle of writing 1 is correctly applied. The traditional historical principle, the most “unprincipled”, blindly preserving any tradition of writing, is based on the same principle of transmitting the past. These are the Church Slavonic spellings in Russian writing: assistant with a letter sch, although the Russian word does not come from Church Slavonic help, but from Russian help, that etymologically it would be necessary to write through h (helper), and phonemically through w(assistant), writing unstressed endings of adjectives -th, -th (spare, overseas, although under stress -th: spare, marine), writing an unstressed prefix once- With A, although under the accent [o], cf. meditation, But rest, flourish etc. In Russian spelling before the reform of 1917. there were many more such traditional spellings (her, instead of her, unstressed endings of adjectives -ago, -ago; the use of the letters fita and izhitsa, etc.). The fifth and sixth principles can also be compared: these are the morphological principle and the symbolic one. What they have in common is that they strive to convey the language not through phonetics, while morphological spellings reflect grammar (morphology), bypassing phonetics and even conflicting with it, and symbolic writings strive to distinguish lexical homonyms that are phonetically indistinguishable. An example of morphological spellings can be the use of a soft sign at the end of feminine words after hissing words (night, Where b useless, cf. Ray, or mouse, Where b written after the hard [sh], which is a clear contradiction); the fact that in such writings it is not a matter of etymology is shown by examples of foreign words to which this rule applies (false, mascara, Wed carcass masculine without b). A good example of symbolic writing was the distinction between two homonyms in pre-reform Russian orthography: peace(antonym war) And world(synonym universe). In modern Russian orthography, spellings such as set fire(verb with e) And arson(noun with O), show a combination of morphological and symbolic principles, because both grammar and vocabulary differ in them. Such writings as company And campaign, overpass And overpass, although the differences in spelling in these cases are based on foreign etymology. The symbolic principle includes the use of capital letters in proper names (cf. French And General French, frost And Father Frost); These examples show that the symbolic principle is associated with the manifestation of a unique ideography. In any orthography one can observe one or another combination of different principles, but each orthographic system is determined by the leading principles; Thus, for the Russian spelling system the leading principle is the phonemic principle, on the basis of which the basic spelling rules are built, while for most Western European orthographies the leading principles are etymological and traditional-historical (for example, for English or French spelling).
